How dogs were domesticated

Dog

Taxonomy Collage of 9 dogs

Scientific classification

International scientific name

Canis lupus familiaris

Linnaeus, 1758

Synonyms

• Canis familiaris Linnaeus, 1758[1]
• Canis lupus f. familiaris[1]
• Canis lupus pallipes f. familiaris[1]

Systematics on Wikispecies

Images via Wikimedia Commons
Wildlife.
Dogs [BBC] Dog

,
a domestic dog
is a placental mammal of the order Carnivorous family Canidae, an animal domesticated by man.
Classified as a subspecies of wolf or as a separate species of the genus Wolves ( Canis
).

Size.

The height of dogs at the withers varies from 100 cm for the huge Irish Wolfhound to 15 cm for the tiny Chihuahua. A dog's weight depends on its build and amount of fat reserves. For example, one obese St. Bernard weighed 113 kg, and then lost weight to 72 kg.

Also on topic:

WOLVES

With regular training, dogs are surprisingly strong for their size - some are able to carry heavy luggage on their backs, drag sleds, logs and other large loads. These animals are also very hardy. Sled dogs often have six of them to tow sleds weighing one ton for several hours at a time; foxhounds can follow the scent for 48 hours without a break.

Fur.

The Mexican Hairless Dog is almost hairless. In some breeds, the fur can grow up to 45 cm, and only constant cutting and combing provide the animal with a normal life. The breeds even differ in the nature of their hair - some have coarse hair, others have silky hair. Most dogs are smooth-haired, but some have hair that sticks out vertically from the hair follicles, resulting in the so-called. Wire-haired. Typically, the cross-section of the hair is round, but in some breeds it is oval, resulting in curly fur. When the hair is both long and curly, the coat looks like a fleece, i.e. curled into long, tight spirals, like a bullet's.

Some breeds have only one type of hair, but most have a different coat and soft undercoat. The long and thick undercoat of northern dogs protects them from severe frost.

All dogs shed their fur once a year, and the timing of shedding largely depends on the length of daylight hours. Shedding begins when the days become noticeably longer. By mid-summer, old hair falls out, and new hair partially grows back. If the dog is constantly kept at home, where electric lighting maintains approximately the same “length of day” all year round, the shedding will be delayed. In natural light, it is completed in a few months.

Temperature also affects fur growth. If you keep a dog outside, then with the onset of cold weather its fur thickens. If a dog of the same breed lives in a warm place, its fur is always less dense.

Most dog colors are due to the combination of black and yellow hair characteristic of their ancestor, the wolf. However, mutations and other reasons have led to incomparably greater diversity, which is generally typical for domestic animals.

In dogs, like all mammals, the color of their fur is determined by pigment granules contained in the hair. When there are many of them, the color is black. When there are fewer black granules and they are more loosely located, the color becomes dark chestnut. When the black granules are scattered and there are no yellow ones, the so-called result is obtained. blue or gray fur. In the absence of black pigment it is yellow. If there are no pigments at all, the dog turns out to be an albino. Such individuals are very rare; they have white fur and red eyes.

Of all domestic animals, dogs are considered the most ancient animals that entered into culture. Perhaps that is why or for other reasons there are still different opinions about their wild ancestors. In fact, in the real fauna “dogs” exist only in a domestic state. And in the wild there are only their relatives, wolves and jackals. The direct ancestor has not yet been established. In such cases, as is explained for a number of cultivated plants, a hybrid origin of the familliaris species is assumed. The question of the wild ancestors of dogs is more or less clear, although one author derived them from hypothetical, supposedly now extinct, special dogs - Canisferus (Studer), others - from the species-rich genus Canis, put forward jackals, wolves, coyotes, foxes as the ancestors of dogs and etc.

Charles Darwin admitted the wide polyphyly origin of dogs, guided by the opinions of travelers and his impressions during the expedition on the Beagle ship. Darwin assumed that the breeds of domestic dogs in a given country were similar to the local wild representatives of the genus Canis. In his time, however, knowledge of taxonomy and history was far from sufficient. The taxonomy was greatly enriched after the work of Myvart, Huxley, Hilzheimer, Studer, Ognev, Matthew, Allen and others. Therefore, to make an informed assumption about the wild or wild ancestral species, it is necessary to imagine the classification of both wild and domestic dogs.

The classification of wild Canidae is constantly undergoing significant changes and refinements. And until now, different zoologists have different attitudes towards the boundaries of genera, subgenera and species. An example of this is the fox. Some authors (S.I. Ognev) distinguish foxes and arctic foxes into different genera (Vulpes and Alopex), while other authors (Hilzheimer) consider foxes and arctic foxes to be two subspecies of the same genus Canis.

We adhere to the point of view of the latest authors, allowing a small number of genera and a large number of subgenera in the family Canidae.

In the entire family of canids (Canidae), that is, dog-like animals, we recognize five genera. Morphologically they differ from each other by different dental forms. Of these, four genera are poor in species and one is rich in them.

Poor and therefore rare births are located in different parts of the world. Thus, Otocyon, which has only one species - the long-eared dog Otocyon megalotis, lives only in South and East Africa.

The genus Cuon - the red wolf is divided into three species: 1. Cuon dukhunensis Sykes (club) - a Central Asian species that lives in the Himalayas and the mountains closest to them; 2. Cuon javanicus Desm (Adyag Malay), living in Java; 3. Cuon alpinus Pall - an alpine form, distributed somewhat north of Central Asia.

Genus Spheotos - forest dog with one species (Spheotos venaticus Lund.) - distributed in South America

The genus Lycaon is a hyena dog, also found in Africa with only one species.

The fifth genus - Canis - dog (see jpg), in contrast to the four genera listed above, is very rich in species; distributed over all continents, including Australia. All representatives of this genus have 42 teeth, the formulas of which are:

3. 1 . 4 . 2 x 2 = 42 3. 1 . 4 . 3

The subgenera composing this genus do not all have the same taxonomic delimitation from other subgenera. Therefore, the separation of individual of them into genera is justified to some extent. The classification is most often based on morphological and, to a lesser extent, biological criteria. Among the morphological features of the skull, in addition to the teeth, the size of the frontal cavities and the shape of the supraorbital processes are taken into account; other morphological characteristics take into account body size, shape of pupils, length of ears, tails, etc.

But if we approach the taxonomy of the genus not only from morphological, but also from biological positions, for example, taking into account the possibility of obtaining hybrids, then the subgenera of the genus Canis turn out to be unequal. This is how hybrids turned out, and even fertile ones, between the subgenus Canis (wolves, dogs) and Canis Thos (jackals); with great difficulty, hybrids are obtained between arctic fox and fox belonging to different subgenera; There are no hybrids between foxes and dogs.

Based on what has just been said, the vast majority of subgenera are eliminated as ancestors of domestic dogs. These are all fox-like animals, such as foxes (Vulpes), arctic foxes (Alopex), Abyssinian jackal fox (Simenia); all American jackal-like forms - coyotes, Mekongs, “Azara dogs”; jackal-like forms of Africa, such as the black-backed jackal (Lupulella), striped jackal (Schaffia), long-eared fennec fox (Megalotis), gray fox of North America (Urocyan). In total, 10 subgenera out of 12 disappear.

There remain two subgenera that are closest to domestic dogs both in morphological and biological characteristics: wolves - Canis (Canis) lupus and jackals Canis Thos. Domestic dogs, combined into one species Familiaris, are classified together with wolves in one subgenus - Canis of the genus Canis. But while wolves are quite monotonous in terms of subgeneric characteristics, jackals, on the contrary, are distinguished by their diversity. Domestic dogs interbreed prolifically with wolves and jackals, confirming the blood affinity between wolves, jackals and domestic dogs.

Wolves and jackals. What are the characteristics of wolves and jackals? Their geographical areas are different and only in a few places they mix; They have different degrees of variability in morphological characteristics and habits. But at the same time, there are many characteristics that bring both subgenera closer together. In general terms, we can say that wolves are subarctic animals, and jackals are subtropical.

Wolves (see figure) are distributed throughout Asia, with the exception of Arabia and Indochina; in North America they live from the polar zones to Mexico; in Europe - in most of it, and in the past, before the mass extermination of wolves by humans, they existed throughout Europe. Zergel, who studied Quaternary mammals, including wolves, of Central Europe, described several species of the latter. In his works, Zergel was based on various turtles he studied, however, as the studies of V.V. Petrov showed, the individual variability of the wolf skull is so significant that it does not give the right to establish differences in European species on this basis. At best, one can assume the existence of several races, but even then with a comprehensive account of living individuals.

Therefore, we have to accept that there is only one species of wolf (Canis) Canis lupus in Europe.

Our typical wolves have several races: Kamchatka, Turukhansk, desert, North Caucasian, Kuban. In Western Europe, wolves of Northern Spain and Italy stand out somewhat. The differences between these races are in size, color; in some, in craniological characteristics.

As for Asia, the same species Canis Canis lupus dominates there with different variations. In any case, it populated Europe and Asia up to the mountain ranges of the mainland. To the south of the ridges, other species are distinguished, such as the Tibetan chanko (chanko), Indian (pallipes), and also Japanese (hodophylax). But the differences between these Asian species are so small that it is impossible to recognize them as more than subspecies. Of these, the Indian subspecies occupies Hindustan and part of Balochistan. Tibetan, besides Tibet, exists in the mountainous southern part of Mongolia, in the Pamirs.

Wolves around the globe are relatively homogeneous. All wolves are characterized by large size compared to other representatives of Canidae.

Their main prey are medium and even large sized mammals. They hunt stealthily, from ambush, or by direct pursuit (until the prey is exhausted). Wolves themselves are very tireless when running. If the prey is large, then wolves most often take it already exhausted. Small animals and birds are also their food, but out of necessity.

Jackals appear to be different. Their sizes are usually smaller than the vast majority of wolves. They feed mainly on small animals and birds. They eat large animals either in the form of corpses or completely exhausted. They attack the cubs of various animals. They hunt from ambush with quick jumps or throws.

Jackals are distributed throughout South Asia from Burma in the east to Asia Minor in the west. The northern border of their range runs along the southern slope of the Himalayan Mountains and south of the Pamirs. They are found in the southern parts of Turkmenistan, along the Amu Darya, Transcaspian and in various places in the Caucasus.

In Europe, jackals are found on the Balkan Peninsula and reach the southern part of Hungary. All these areas are occupied by one species - the golden jackal Canis (Thos) aureus Oken. Shtuder, N.A. Smirnov and other authors clarified its craniological features, which can be compared with those of wolves. These features primarily relate to the nature of the dental arcade. In golden jackals, it consists of small teeth arranged open-loop. In addition, the teeth at the base have girdles (gyngulum). The fangs are thin and high. Carnivorous teeth (dentes sectorii) are less in length than the sum of the lengths of the two posterior molars in the upper jaw. Skull measurement indices show that the muzzle of Asian golden jackals is longer in the main part. In addition, in golden jackals the distance of the temporal constriction from the transverse plane passing through the supraorbital processes is relatively less than in wolves.

Other species of jackals are common in northern and northeastern Africa. These include the small jackal Mengezieva (Canis Thos menhesi Noak).

This is the largest form, reminiscent of the European Shepherd, Doderlein - (Thos) doederleini Hilrh. The main length of the skulls ranges between 178 - 187 mm.

Next - Canis (Thos) anthus Cuv - the graceful Senegalese jackal.

Canis (Thos) lupaster is a wolf-jackal smaller than C. (T.) doederleini and larger than C. (T.) anthos. The wolf jackal is also called “sacred” (sacer), since its mummies were discovered in Egypt. The height of the wolf jackal is 50 cm; the main length of the skull is 147 - 155 mm. It has a wide, spitz-shaped head with large, wide, high, pointed ears. — The body is powerful with fairly high legs; the tail is fluffy, drooping, but sometimes curved in an arch. The coat is not very thick, dark and brown in color.

The wolf jackal lives in northern (Morocco) and northeastern Africa. At night and in the evening it also appears in the Nile Valley.

Attacks small antelopes, hares, mice, chickens and other birds. He also likes to eat fruit. In rainy times, it stays in packs, undertaking long wanderings and attacking sheep and goats, which it crushes more than it eats; scatters the flocks, which causes great anger among the shepherds. When they are hungry, the whole flock greedily rushes to the carrion. In the steppes of Inner Africa, these jackals are hunted with greyhounds.

In captivity, wolf-jackals behave like other wild Canidae, especially similar to true wolves. At first they are shy and easily irritated. Getting used to it, they respond to the call and allow themselves to be caressed. Their howl is similar to that of their wild relatives, but their voice is rarely heard.

Pregnancy lasts 63 days. Puppies have delicate fur. With normal nutrition they grow quickly.

Wolf jackals, like all their African “species”, are variable in size, slenderness and massiveness of the skull.

We dwelled in detail on the wolf jackal, as one of the supposed relatives of domestic dogs. From the same point of view, others close to it are of interest - gray jackals. Antonius, based on the works of Studer and Hilzheimer, distinguishes four types among them. One of them, with several local races, is distributed in the southern part of North Africa, north to Nubia and Abyssinia. These are the slender jackal (variegatus) and the broad-headed jackal (riparius).

The second type lives in Senegambia.

A third type of gray jackal, rich in variation, is found in North Africa.

The fourth type - Dolerlein's dogs Antonius also described the skulls of another North African form - C. Thos studeri, but he believes that the skulls of this form are rather captive skulls of a wolf jackal. They were taken from the zoo.

Doderlein's wolf-jackal is a light yellow-gray animal with a rather short muzzle and high legs. It differs sharply from its neighbor, the Syrian wolf, with which it still sometimes produces hybrids.

Northern and especially North-Eastern Africa, as we see, are rich in various wild forms of the subgenus Canis Thos. However, they do not have such pronounced purely jackal characteristics as the Eurasian golden jackals (Canis (Thos) aureus). Some of them, especially the wolf-jackal and Doderlein's wolf-jackal, are distinguished by mixed characteristics of wolves and jackals. Moreover, all these “northern jackals” are very variable, interbreed prolifically, and therefore different authors have difficulty identifying their geographical races or subspecies. The presence of transitional characters greatly complicates their taxonomic assessment.

If we have little doubt about the source material for the domestication of the gray wolf-jackal of Africa, then the role of the golden Asian jackal as the ancestor of domestic dogs is mysterious. For a long time there was an idea that small Spitz-type dogs, at least the peat spitz dogs of Europe, descended from golden jackals, and large ones from wolves. But after Studer’s research (1880 - 1907), the idea that the golden jackal was the ancestor of the Spitz disappeared, since characteristic jackal features were not found either in the skull or in the teeth of these dogs.

However, to this day the idea of ​​the participation of the golden jackal has not been completely abandoned.

Regarding the genetic connection between the dog and the jackal, we present an interesting description of some dog skulls made by A. A. Brauner (1940). In 1915 - 1917 he received 16 dog skulls from remote Mari settlements in the Kirov region (former Vyatka province). In three skulls the author found similarities with the skulls of the gray jackals we described. They differed only in the slightly greater width of the muzzle and the entire skull, which was a consequence of domestication. He compared other skulls to those of the golden jackal. Most of their measurements turned out to be the same. Brauner wrote that the morphological characteristics that distinguish the skull of a jackal from the skull of a wolf and a dog were found in Mari mongrels. The structure of the auditory tympani, nasal processes, frontal and premaxillary bones is especially similar. The profile is straight with a barely noticeable notch below the supraorbital foramen. The rims (cyngulum) on the first upper molars are pronounced, like those of jackals. The teeth are small.

Brauner believed that these dogs represented surviving relics of groups native to South Asia. Mari dogs stand close to huskies.

The presence of two different types in domestic dogs has been noted more than once in the literature. Some of the authors associated this fact with the dual origin of dogs - from wolves and from jackals, while others, when establishing these types, did not directly talk about the presence of two different relatives - ancestors, but only stated the fact itself.

N.A. Smirnov (1936) found these two types in husky dogs - wolf and jackal. They are found, despite strong domestication changes, in huskies, especially in the shortening of the muzzle (Spitz).

In jackal-shaped dogs, Smirnov discovered parallel variability - a shortening of the muzzle and a slight increase in its width. But the characteristic narrowness of the skull in the fangs of jackals has been preserved. And even using the Adlerberg index, we have to admit that Smirnov’s opinion is fair.

Similar studies of a large number of skulls of dogs of different breeds allowed Shema (1922) to more or less clearly distinguish the type of hunting dogs (decumanidens) and the type of shepherd dogs (veltridens). These two types of skulls are characteristic of domestic dogs, wolves and their hybrids, but they are not found in jackals. Based on this, the author excludes jackals from the ancestors of any groups of domestic dogs.

Characteristic of the first type (decumanidens) are long parietal bones, short frontals and short maxillary bones. Homologous bones in the second type (veltridens) have opposite relationships. The weakness of this classification is that the vast majority of individuals in different breeds have a mixed ratio of these bones.

Sheme's merit is that he tried to bring modern dog races into line with prehistoric basic forms, which we will talk about in connection with the classification of domestic dog breeds.

While the origin of Egyptian dog breeds from North African jackal-wolves seems clear to us, the question of the origin of dogs of South Asian breeds is much more complicated.

The range of wolves is limited to Hindustan, where its own subspecies of the medium-sized wolf (Canis Canis lupus pallipes) lives. The main length of his skull, according to Brauner, is 195 - 208 mm. At one time, K. Keller and other authors produced from him large Indian dogs, such as the European mastiff. These dogs are spoken of in Greek works dating back to classical times.

As for Indochina and Indonesia, we do not yet know what forms of wild dogs were present in those parts in the Stone Age. Some milestones we get from looking at Pariah dogs, Battuck dogs and the Australian dingo. The importance of pariahs in matters of the origin of domestic dogs is particularly strongly emphasized by Antonius (1922). He, in turn, draws on Studer's (1907) extensive research on prehistoric dogs; at the same time, both authors emphasized the similarity of the skulls of pariah dogs with dingoes, and the structure of the dingo’s skull with the skull of a fossil dog of Europe, called Putiatin’s dog (CCfam. putiatini).

Studer divided domestic dogs into two groups - southern and northern. The prototypes of the southern ones are dingoes, pariahs and greyhounds. The northern ones comprise the bulk of dog breeds, especially European dogs.

Basically, Studer’s division was supported by Strebel, who also accepted the division of dogs into two groups - Palaearctic (Europe, North, Central and East Asia) and southern (South Asia, Sunda Islands, Australia, Africa). At the same time, he admitted the possibility of the origin of domestic dogs from wolves and “maybe” from jackals.

Until the pictures of the life of the Upper Paleolithic and Mesolithic peoples of Southeast Asia are clear, it is impossible to resolve the question of the origin of the most ancient dogs of these regions.

Dingoes and pariahs. We are inclined to believe that dingoes came to Australia with humans and went wild there. Against this opinion there is only the fact that their bone remains were found in the Pliocene deposits of Australia. But there is an answer to this too. The dingo makes holes and lives in them, and therefore its bones, found in the relatively deep layers of the earth in Australia, are secondary. Much more fantastic is the assumption that the dingo is the only wild, “true” mammal among the entire marsupial fauna in Australia.

What is this mysterious dog? We had to observe her at the Moscow Zoo, get acquainted with the literature about her and study her skulls. Judging by the photograph, which fairly well reflects its appearance, this is indeed a prototype of some special “wild dog”. She cannot be classified as either a wolf or a jackal.

Moreover, the dingo is not alone. On the large islands closest to Australia, in particular on Tahiti and New Zealand, according to Cook, there were now extinct semi-domestic dogs.

According to Kohlbrugge, in Java there was a wild Tenggeran dog (Canis tenggerana Kohlbrugge) similar to the dingo, also now extinct. She had a red-brown color with black stripes. The existence of such a wild dog forced researchers to consider the dingo as a wild form.

Currently, imported European dog breeds are found everywhere, while the local ones have died out or been absorbed by the imported ones. The original Australians kept dingoes in a semi-domestic state. Travelers who knew the dingo in its homeland considered it a domesticated wolf and described it as wild and angry.

In terms of lifestyle, dingoes are more reminiscent of jackals than wolves. His hunting packs are small: 5 - 6 individuals - a female and her cubs. However, they gather in large quantities near carrion. Dingoes also attack sheep, especially lambs.

The female usually gives birth to 6 - 7 puppies in a cave or under the roots of trees.

In zoos, dingoes are trained to bark. They easily interbreed with domestic dogs and produce fertile offspring, although they communicate with them reluctantly, reminding them of wolves.

The coat color of dingoes varies: most often they are reddish-red, but they are also black and white. The undercoat is greyish: the coverts are red-yellowish. Dingoes are similar in size to European Shepherds of medium height. The head has developed sideburns and ears that are smaller than those of wolves. In terms of body structure, especially the forelimbs, they are close to wolves.

The dingo skulls we studied resembled, in general terms, the skulls of Airedale terriers, and in terms of slenderness they were closer to jackals than to wolves. Some of the dingo skulls we had were very similar to the wolf-jackal skull. The sagittal ridges are rather weakly expressed, but the occipital protuberance protrudes sharply. In the parietal region, the skull is convex and the side walls go almost vertically to the base of the skull. The temporal narrowing is not sharp, wider than the orbital one. The forehead is low, but with a deep longitudinal furrow. The supraorbital processes are slightly inclined, with notches. The prominences converge in the suture area. The side walls of the muzzle fall vertically. The bend in profile is weakly expressed. The basic length of the skull ranged from 165 to 178 mm, with an average of 171 mm. The massiveness of the teeth, in particular those of a carnivore, is intermediate in nature between a jackal and a wolf. The length of a carnivorous tooth is equal to two back ones. Among the dingo skulls there are specimens with greater and lesser traces of domestication.

Some authors, such as Studer, Strebel, Antonius, devoted much attention to pariah dogs in questions of the origin of domestic dogs. These are ownerless dogs that have lived in large numbers in many South Asian cities and Egypt since ancient times. Recognition of the antiquity of their existence gives the right to look for dogs among them that resemble primary domestic ones. And in this sense, they are trying to build a bridge through them to wild dogs like dingoes. According to Studer, pariahs were distributed south of the Himalayas - across India and the Sunda Islands. These places may actually preserve the dogs' roots of southern origins. Their role was similar everywhere: the destruction of the refuse of cities and villages.

We will not dwell in detail on the description of pariahs, we will only say that they are not uniform everywhere. Among them one could see different types, to varying degrees approaching modern breeds. There were hounds, greyhounds, sheepdogs and other types. We had to see these dogs in Istanbul before their evacuation from this city. And there they were not of the same type. On the contrary, among them there were those similar to wolves, hounds, shepherd dogs and other breeds.

It is remarkable that the dogs that existed in Egypt and in Southeast Asia still had some similarities. Meanwhile, the relatives of both were most likely different. In Africa, local jackal-wolves, in South Asia, descendants of the Indian wolf and some extinct groups such as the Tengeran dog and dingo. It seems to us that 10,000 - 12,000 years ago, when the process of domestication of dogs was underway in Southeast Asia, along with the Indian wolf, there were transitional forms of jackal-wolves, approaching the dingo. They probably resembled North African dogs in many ways, which explains some of the similarities between the pariah dogs of such remote areas.

Northern wolves and dogs. Thus, we come to the conclusion that the southern (according to Strebel) groups of dogs (dogs of South Asia, the Sunda Islands, Australia and Africa) originated from forms transitional between wolves and jackals. As for the northern groups (dogs of most of Europe, Northern, Central and Eastern Asia), then, as we will see later, their ancestors were typical northern wolves. This is evidenced by the Stone Age dogs of the Amur River described by A. A. Brachner (1923). Two skulls of ethical dogs were found in kitchen remains near the Innokentyevskaya station on the river. Amur, The first skull was of medium size (basic length 165 mm). Braunert classified this skull as a typical northern dog - the husky-like one. The author attributed the second skull to the southern type, since it has much in common with the Indian wolf, pariahs and dingoes. This skull is slightly longer than the first (172 mm). But it should be said that although Amur dogs lived among Stone Age people, chronologically this time was not nearly as early as the Stone Age in South Asia.

Of great interest are the finds of dog skulls in the layers of Afontova Gora II near Krasnoyarsk, dating back to the Madeleine era of Siberia. Among many wild large mammals, the skull of a typical wolf and another skull were found here, judging by the description of V.I. Gromov (1948), different from the wolf, but with a greatly shortened facial part and a large palatal width. The author says that these features suggest the existence in Paleolithic times of a special large variety of wolf or the presence of a domesticated wolf. Judging by the fact that only the remains of a wolf were found in layer III, the more superficial one, it is still impossible to talk about the process of its real domestication. One can only assume that this process was sporadic and did not firmly enter into the everyday life of the people of that time. But it is very symptomatic that in another area, not near the Yenisei, but near the Lena, in Verkholenskaya Mountain, Canis Canis skulls were also found. According to the definition of A. A. Biruli (1929) and according to my personal impressions, they bore even more clearly expressed traces of domestication. Also in the caves of Crimea, wolf skulls with traces of domestication were found.

Ancient dogs of Egypt and Mesopotamia. The origin of domestic dogs in North Africa seems quite clear. Here, for domestication, there was a large and varied material among the group of “northern jackals”, which were close to real wolves. It can also be assumed that in the distant times of the Paleolithic and Mesolithic in different places of North Africa, and probably also in the fertile Sahara, there was a greater variety of wild dogs from which domesticated forms could be created.

The variety of original forms, species with subspecies can explain the amazing number of breeds of domestic dogs in Egypt, starting from the Old Kingdom, and perhaps even earlier, original breeds, which are part of the prototypes of European ones.

In Egypt, judging by the surviving drawings, there were graceful greyhounds, heavier hounds, Spitz-type dogs, dachshunds, and probably also breeds that we do not yet know about.

True, archaic times did not leave traces of such diversity, but even there the remains of dogs belonging to no less than three types were found. And they had their own designations in hieroglyphs.

The creation of breeds in the distant times of the Old Kingdom, without zootechnical and biological sciences, forces us, on the one hand, to admit the duration of the era of their formation, and on the other hand, to see the love and outstanding abilities of the people, which in the field of animal selection were manifested primarily in dogs. The diversity of material for rock formation was probably achieved through natural subspecific hybridization. The extent to which the art of domestication was developed at that time is evidenced by the achievements in the domestication of cheetahs, hyena dogs, and jackals. It is known that jackals were considered animals sacred to the god Anubis, who was depicted with the head of a jackal.

The study of drawings from tombs and other monuments of Ancient Egypt led Strebel to the conclusion that there were at least 13 - 15 clear breeds of dogs. The fact that the drawings really give an idea of ​​​​breeds, and not of random individuals, is evidenced by the repetition of the same forms on completely different monuments. There are images of individual dogs, packs of them, and hunting scenes. In images of hunting scenes, peculiar greyhound-like dogs are especially often repeated. Their legs are long, the body is lean, the muzzle is narrowed, the profile is straight, the ears are erect, the tail is curled over the back. Their fur was probably smooth. Such dogs (apparently in packs) were used in hunting gazelles. Along with them there were hound-type dogs, heavier, with small but drooping ears. There were dog breeds that were very similar to pointers, even with a horizontal tail.

Of the four images of mastiff-like dogs known to me, only one was overweight, with a short concave muzzle, and drooping ears. The other three had a straight head profile and ears of different shapes; One's ears appear to be cropped. These three have a slight toastiness to them. There were dogs that resembled modern cops, mongrels, and pariahs. Heavy mastiff dogs, apparently, were of Asian-Iranian-Mesopotamian origin; on the other hand, dogs of Egyptian breeds were also exported far away. This is, for example, stated in the description of dogs from the island of Ceylon.

According to G. Miller (1929), citing Eitel, during the 19th dynasty there were 200 dogs of the Uau species and 300 of the Unzu species. This, as well as the small dogs raised by the royal scribe Nagar-Gu, is known from this deciphered letter. Dogs performed functions such as driving water wheels, driving livestock, and guarding them. Pet dogs were held in high esteem. After death, they were embalmed and mourned for them, which is associated with their dedication to the god Anubis.

The dog breeding of ancient Mesopotamia, compared to the Egyptian one, seems to us poorer. We are not aware of images of such a variety of dog breeds during the times of Ur or Lagash. Most of the monuments survive from later Assyrian times. But there are few images of dogs even at this time. From the time of Ur there are images of spitz-shaped forms.

Neither the indigenous inhabitants of Mesopotamia nor the newcomers, the Sumerian Akkadians, had the grateful wild material known to us that the ancestors of the Egyptians possessed. Only Syrian wolves and golden jackals are close to Mesopotamia, which alone can represent material for domestication. We do not yet know about the penetration of other material from Egypt or other places in Asia.

Types of domestic dogs in Eurasia and their classification. In the last two millennia, it was Europe that took first place in the creation of various types and breeds of dogs. In previous millennia, Egypt was in first place in this regard. Unfortunately, it has not yet been possible to establish a continuity between the breeds of Egypt and Europe through Greece and Rome. It is possible that the influence of Egypt on the formation of dog breeds in Europe is not particularly strong. Rather, we have to admit parallelism in this regard, which is proven by the presence in South America of some dog breeds similar to Egyptian and European ones. At one time, L. Fitzinger (1866) tried to identify the connection between the dog breeds of the ancient states of the East and Europe. At the same time, he referred to the authority of ancient Greece and Rome - to Xenophon, Aristotle, Varro, Virgil, etc. It is characteristic that all the mentioned authors, speaking essentially about dog breeds, usually give them only geographical names. Xenophon calls the Greek dog breeds as we would call them: “Canes genera duo sunt. Aliae castoriae, aliar vulpinae." Here the concept of “breed” is expressed by the word “genus”. Aristotle cited in his writings a number of dog breeds in Greece: continued...

Ears.

Some breeds have ears very different from the pointed, erect ears of the ancestral, wolf type. Sometimes they are much shorter; but the other extreme is the hanging ears of a black and tan foxhound with a “span” (if measured over the head, stretching them to the sides) reaching 100 cm.

Some dogs have ears that are naturally erect and pointed, while others, such as beagles, have ears that flop because of their length and weight. In a number of breeds with naturally hanging ears, they are trimmed (cropped) at an early age to make them erect and pointed. However, in the UK and some other countries this operation is prohibited. Now they are breeding “loop-eared” dogs with shorter ears that can stand up straight without being clipped.

Tail shape and position.

As a result of breeding work, dogs have a huge variety of tail shapes and positions. For example, in some bulldog breeds it is short and curled. In gun breeds that work on game birds, there are two opposite options for its placement. According to US club standards, these dogs must hunt with their tail held high, while the rules adopted in the UK require it to be extended back in the working position. As a result, some gun breeds, such as pointers and setters, are bred in two varieties.

Dogs of this type sometimes damage their long tail in dense bushes, so in a number of these breeds it is customary to chop it off. Tails are also docked on spaniels, poodles, Dobermans, schnauzers and some other breeds. The Old English Sheepdog (Bobtail) and the Schipperke basically do not have a tail. If present in a newborn, it is amputated at an early age.

Service

Dogs of this group are strong, hardy animals. Thanks to their intelligence, they are aware of this power and use it only when necessary. The breeds are excellent at training, remembering skills and commands for a long time. These dogs (photo presented in the article) get along well with other pets and children. In order for a dog to have a calm and balanced disposition, its methodical, systematic training begins from childhood.

The most popular representatives of this group of breeds include:

• shepherd dogs (several species);
• Rottweiler;
• Saint Bernard;
• collie;
• Doberman;
• Great Dane;
• boxer.

Dogs of these breeds are used to protect objects and people, search for gas leaks underground, search or rescue people, inspect luggage and cargo, search for weapons and drugs, and also as shepherds and guides for the blind.

We invite you to familiarize yourself with the Fishes of the Black Sea: list, description and features

The description of the rocks can be briefly summarized as follows. Representatives obey only the owner, and only his hands must train them. They are easy to train and can be cruel to enemies. They are devoted friends and protectors. The aggressiveness of these dogs can only be caused by improper upbringing (training).

Teeth.

Like all mammals, dogs have two sets of teeth. Small, sharp baby teeth develop in puppies towards the end of the infancy period, i.e. at 6–8 weeks of age. By 14 weeks, the two middle upper incisors fall out, followed by all the other baby teeth. They are quickly replaced by permanent teeth, and by the age of five months the dog has already developed a full “adult” set of teeth, consisting of 42 teeth.

The dog uses small incisors located in front - six upper and lower - to bite food, and four pointed long fangs on the sides of them - to tear it, and also during fights. The remaining teeth - premolars and molars - are needed for gnawing bones and cutting meat.

Despite their typically carnivorous dentition, dogs are not purely carnivores. In the wild, they devour their prey whole, including a significant amount of partially digested plant contents from its stomach. Most domestic dogs also like to eat a whole rodent on occasion, such as a mouse or a groundhog.

Dog - description

The ancestors of dogs are ancient wolves and other canids, possibly jackals. From them she got a fairly strong, muscular body covered with fur. The shape and size of a dog's head is a defining exterior feature by which a dog can be classified as a particular breed. The head of a dog conventionally consists of a cranium and a muzzle.

The dog's body has a head, neck, withers, chest, back, croup, rump, tail and four limbs - front and rear. The dog's paws are equipped with claws that do not retract into the pads when walking. The dog has well-developed muscles, which allow the animal to perform various movements, including moving not only by walking, but also running remarkably well at a decent speed or making fairly high jumps.

Voice.

Dogs can make sounds of varying pitches and intensities. It's not just barking. When lost, they howl, whine in pain, and while eating, they growl, warning: “Don’t come near.” Females, being near the puppies, often become agitated and purr when they squeal restlessly.

Representatives of all breeds are capable of “singing” on their own initiative. Many dogs react to the sound of certain notes and howl at them. Some dogs, especially northern ones, seem to like to “sing in chorus”: raising their heads, they howl in unison.

The voice is considered an important feature of hunting dogs. Thanks to careful selection of English breeds, especially hounds, their pleasant sound is specially achieved.

Hunting dogs

Dogs of hunting breeds are another representative of active animals. Chasing is their way of life. Therefore, those who want to have such an animal need to remember this feature.

Subdivided:

• burrows;
• terriers;
• spaniels;
• hounds;
• greyhounds;
• cops;
• likes.

Popular dogs are dachshunds, basset hounds, beagles, huskies, Jagd terriers, as well as fox terriers, spaniels, and Italian greyhounds.

The breeds are distinguished by their friendliness, obedience, and strong family orientation. Along with this, hunting dogs (photo below) are brave and energetic, and are well trained. A distinctive feature is a very keen sense of smell.

Sense organs.

Dogs have the same senses as humans, only some are more developed, others the same, and others, perhaps, worse. Dogs' hearing is much more subtle. If a person distinguishes sounds with a frequency of up to 20,000 Hz, then most dogs - up to 40,000 Hz (and some - even twice as high tones), i.e. perceives frequencies that are “ultrasonic” to us. This is the basis for the use of a “silent” Galton whistle: they are given signals with a frequency above 20,000 Hz. Dogs perceive them, but people do not.

The sense of smell (sense) greatly depends on the breed, but all dogs are much superior to humans in this regard, and some are able to smell even such faint odors that no device can detect. For example, bloodhounds can distinguish the scent of a specific person among the tracks of hundreds of people.

Although the taste sensitivity of dogs has not been studied enough, some observations suggest that it is also higher than that of humans. However, what was defined as “taste” in the experiments may also include the smell of the object, which is inaccessible to humans.

Dogs are color blind; otherwise their vision is probably close to that of humans. However, some breeds see worse than us, especially in the distance. Dogs' sense of touch seems to be less developed than that of humans.

Behavior and psychology

The main feature of the dog is its ability to quickly switch between sleep and wakefulness, while the animal is equally active during the day and at night.

The second unique quality of this predatory mammal is the ability to distinguish speech intonation, gestures and the mood of a person. However, such a skill is fully revealed only if the animal is in continuous contact with people for a long time.

The speed of remembering service commands depends on the breed and the degree of trust in the owner. Any dog ​​can be trained if you start training it from puppyhood.

Mental capacity.

Physiologists consider dogs to be one of the smartest pets. However, in this sense, they are somewhat inferior to some wild species and are much “stupid” than monkeys. Dogs have an excellent memory, especially for smells, and they learn quickly through trial and error. For most of the history of dog breeding, they were trained using coercion and punishment. However, thanks to a better understanding of the physiological nature of the conditioned reflex, training dogs now requires less time and gives the animal pleasure. In addition, this reward-based method produces more lasting results.

Dogs starting with the letter K: name of the breed, character description, photo

• Caucasian Shepherd Dog. These dogs are excellent as guards; their strong-willed nature is just right for such activities. It should be noted right away that only an experienced person who understands how to behave with such animals should get such a dog. Caucasian Shepherds, of course, must be trained and trained, otherwise their aggression and anger will find a way out in the wrong place and at the wrong time. Dogs of this breed treat children well, but you cannot trust your baby to such a dog.

Caucasian

• Miniature Pinscher. These cute creatures are well suited for keeping in an apartment; they love to have fun and play, so they get along well with small children. As for training, such dogs need it and they need to be raised from early childhood. It is important to know that dogs of this breed cannot be overly pampered and taught only to praise, since they will very quickly get used to such behavior towards them and will stop responding to their owner and his commands.

Dwarf breed

• Cane Corso. The Cane Corso is a born hunter who always acts intelligently and logically. It is necessary to note one important feature of the character of these dogs - they are extremely characteristic and willful, therefore, only by bringing the dog into the house, the owner must immediately show that he is more important and more important than the dog, otherwise there will be no talk of any obedience. In general, Cane Corsos are quite friendly pets that will defend their territory if necessary.

Born Hunter

• Keeshond. The Keeshond, or as it is also called the German Spitz, is a very active dog that needs constant physical activity. These pets adore children, they show them tenderness and care. This breed is not very suitable for keeping in the house, since it needs space for pranks. Alone, a German Spitz can do a lot of things, for example, tear someone's shoes or sheets.

Spitz

• Cairn Terrier. Like many other terriers, these dogs are very sociable and love people, their company and affection. Dogs are also loving towards other animals, which is important. They also find a common language with young children, especially when it comes to active games. You need to understand that the Cairn Terrier has a guard instinct, so this small dog will protect itself, its family and even family property if necessary. It is very important to accustom dogs of this breed to the fact that there are many different people and animals around them, otherwise they will be aggressive and sullen.

Vigorous

• Kerry Blue Terrier. This dog breed is also suitable for guard duty. Kerry Blue Terriers are quite sociable, but do not like to be given too much attention, especially by children. These pets also do not really like other animals and can sometimes show aggression towards them. Owning such dogs is recommended only to experienced people who can let the pet know who is boss in the house.

Excellent watchman

• American Cocker Spaniel. These are the kindest dogs that do not show aggression towards other animals, small children and intrusive people. American Cocker Spaniels love attention to their person, but it is important not to overdo it so that the pet does not become too picky. Dogs of this breed are easy to train and even without training, they are usually obedient and not mischievous.

American

• English Cocker Spaniel. Dogs of this breed are loyal animals with a hunting instinct. Such pets also get along with other dogs, but it is better not to keep small animals with them. It is also important to note that English Cocker Spaniels are very playful and patient animals.

Englishman

• King Charles Spaniel. This pet is perfect for family and quiet people. Dogs of this breed do not like fuss and noise, so in such situations they tend to become quiet or hide altogether. Such spaniels are very gentle and kind, most often they choose one owner for themselves, they also consider him an authority, therefore they obey and love him most of all.

A dog with a quiet disposition

• Collie. It is unlikely that anyone does not know about such a breed of dog as a collie. These are good-natured, incredibly smart, responsive and understanding pets. They are completely focused on their owner, their family and their needs. Collies are very easy to train, love children and are very rarely aggressive. You can get such a dog even when there is a newborn child in the house, since a collie can be an excellent nanny for a baby.

Good Collie

• Xoloitzcuintle. In simple terms, this breed is called Xolo. These are easily trained, wise and balanced dogs. Xolos do not really like the presence of any other pets in their home, and they also do not really like noisy companies and strangers. These pets love their owners very much and try to spend as much time with them as possible, so they literally follow on their heels.

Xoloitzcuintle

• Chinese Crested Dog. These cute little dogs are considered one of the most loyal companions, they are easy to train and love their owners madly. Without proper training, dogs of this breed become timid and constantly bark.

Devotees

• Kurzhaar. Such dogs are distinguished by energy, activity, intelligence and ingenuity. As a rule, such dogs immediately choose one owner and most often they show all their feelings only to him. Shorthaired Pointers are very good hunters and watchmen; such a dog learns quite quickly and easily, but it definitely needs training. It is the wrong upbringing that sometimes turns this smart dog into an ill-mannered and unsocialized animal.

Kurzhaar

Innate behavior.

Some behavioral stereotypes are the same in all breeds. For example, before lying down, the dog usually spins around in the place chosen for this. Several theories have been proposed to explain this behavior. According to one of them, this stereotype was formed due to the fact that a dog needs to trample down grass or snow to make its bed more comfortable. According to another, this behavior is based on the movements of the female around the puppies, when she gathers them into a pile with gentle pushes, so that when she lies down, she does not crush the cubs.

In addition, there are special breed stereotypes that have long been noticed by breeders. Initially, different types of dogs were created based on their temperament and characteristic working abilities. Although physical traits were simultaneously selected for, they were considered less essential. As a result, breeds of the same direction differ markedly in appearance, however, for example, all shepherd dogs have an innate herding instinct.

Another specialization of behavior is associated with pugnacity and the way of fighting. Fighting breed dogs are especially aggressive. In a fight, they cling their jaws to the enemy, shaking their heads from side to side so that the fangs sink deeper into his body.

Crossing breeds with different behavioral stereotypes shows that some of them dominate in the offspring. For example, if you cross a gun dog that hunts with its head up with a ground-sniffing hound, the offspring will develop a tendency to hold its head up and an interest in hunting birds.

Mating and reproduction.

A female dog is called a bitch, and a male dog is called a male. When a female gives birth, she is said to be whelping, and puppies born together are considered to be part of the same litter. In dogs, the age of puberty is more or less proportional to size. In females of small breeds, the first sexual cycle occurs at the age of 7 to 9 months, and in the largest breeds - no earlier than the 14th or even 16th month of life.

A female dog's sexual cycle is called the estrous cycle, or colloquially called "estrus." During this time, the dog's behavior reflects the development of its ovaries. When follicles with eggs enlarge on their surface, the bitch becomes restless and wanders around, leaving small urine marks everywhere that attract males. She allows the male dog to mate for several days before the follicles rupture and the eggs are released into the reproductive tract. This usually lasts from the 12th to the 16th day of the cycle: the best time for “mating” dogs. After successful mating, birth occurs after approximately 61 days.

The number of eggs released ranges from one to 25 and is generally proportional to the size of the dog. The largest litters have up to 25 puppies; One Foxhound bitch gave birth to and nursed 22 puppies.

If the litter consists of 7 puppies, labor usually lasts from 45 minutes to 2 hours. However, some breeds give birth longer; sometimes it takes them a whole day for this, and the last puppies, as a rule, are born stillborn. The next estrus usually occurs 4–5 months after birth.

Reproduction

Here the brief scientific description of the dog should be divided between domestic and stray individuals.

1. The reproduction of domestic pets is adjusted by humans using zootechnical techniques.
2. Mating of stray animals occurs according to the principle of monocyclicity, that is, dogs can reproduce every six months.

Pregnancy lasts approximately 2 months, immediately after birth the puppies are absolutely helpless. It is for this reason that most females have a highly developed maternal instinct.

Males, on the contrary, have an absolutely calm attitude towards their offspring, and attacks of aggression towards them are not uncommon.

Lifespan.

Depending on the breed, dogs live from 9 to 15 years, but individuals are known that lived up to 20 years and, apparently, maintained normal physical shape until 15 years. The mortality rate of dogs from disease has decreased significantly due to vaccines and improved veterinary care, but this has not led to a significant increase in average life expectancy, since many dogs die as a result of accidents. It is estimated that, taking into account the mortality of puppies, the average life expectancy of dogs does not exceed five years.

Scientific description of the dog: origin

Scientists have differing opinions about the origin of dogs. Some believe that these domestic animals appeared as a result of natural crossing of several species of wild mammals; accordingly, they belong to a polyphyletic group.

Others believe that they appeared as a result of the evolution of one particular species of wild animals and belong to a monophyletic group.

The first domesticated dogs appeared about 14,000 years ago. There is a high probability that in fact the domestication of a wild animal occurred earlier, but this information has not reached our time.

In turn, the oldest breed today is considered to be the Pharaoh Hound, which appeared about 5,000 years ago.

In the process of evolution, the domestic animal has lost some “wild” characteristics, acquiring new ones in return. The number of species expanded, ultimately leading to the fact that there are currently about 400 dog breeds in the world.

Natural classification.

This system distinguishes nine classes: gun dogs, hounds, greyhounds, shepherd dogs, guard dogs, terriers, fighting dogs, sled dogs and lap dogs.

Gun breeds, such as the English setter, spaniel and pointer, are used primarily for bird hunting. They are very attentive and obedient; many are endowed with the instinct to find and bring prey, not only on land, but also in water.

Hounds are hunting dogs that follow the scent (scent) of animals with their nose down to the ground. They are often used to hunt bear, fox, deer, possum and cougar, and sometimes to search for criminals, escaped prisoners and missing people. Some breeds of hounds are created specifically for tracking animals in trees (squirrels, martens, etc.).

Greyhounds are also hunting dogs, but unlike hounds, they chase animals using their keen eyesight. These are one of the fastest dogs. Some of their common breeds include the Greyhound, Irish Wolfhound, Whippet, Saluki and Afghan Hound.

Shepherd dogs, such as Puli and Bobtail dogs, are usually kept on sheep and cattle farms. As a rule, they work without a team, preventing the herd from scattering.

Guard dogs protect human life and property. Widely known among them are the German Shepherd, which is often used as a guide for the blind, and the Doberman Pinscher. Although guard dogs seem angry, they are quite friendly with their owners. In addition, they are alert, reactive and obedient.

Terriers were originally bred to hunt marmots, badgers and other small burrowing animals. These dogs have powerful jaws for pulling prey out of burrows, as well as strong paws and strong claws for digging. Large terriers, such as the Airedale, are used to hunt large animals, in particular pumas.

Fighting dogs, such as the bulldog and bull terrier, are bred primarily for bull baiting and dog fighting. Although these "sports" are now banned in most countries, they still thrive in some areas of South America, Japan and the United States.

Sled dogs, such as Malamutes, are typically used to pull carts, sleds, or other heavy loads. These are large, hardy and very strong animals. In addition, northern sled dogs are able to withstand very low temperatures - down to -46 °C.

Indoor and decorative dogs, such as Pomeranians, Chihuahuas and Pekingese, due to their miniature size, have long been popular as a kind of living toys. However, they are always on the alert and with their barking they are able to warn their owners of serious danger.

Classification of domestic dogs by coat

According to the type of coat, all dogs can be divided into three groups:

• Long-haired. Such animals have a fairly long coat of hair on all parts of the body. Moreover, their coat can be not only straight, but also curly. Long-haired dogs include chins, Pekingese and spaniels.
• Short-haired. Dogs in this group have a very short coat and no undercoat at all. Well-known short-haired breeds include shepherds and chihuahuas.
• Wirehaired. Representatives of this group are covered with long and tough wool. Schnauzers, Fox Terriers and Airedale Terriers can be called wirehaired.

Chihuahuas are one of the smallest short-haired dogs.
People who want to get a dog should familiarize themselves in advance with what type of dog different breeds belong to. You also need to read a brief description of each individual group and photographs of animals.

Exhibition classification.

In some kennel clubs and among hobbyists, the division of breeds into seven classes is sometimes used: terriers, lap dogs, hounds and greyhounds, working dogs, gundogs, non-hunting (user) and herding dogs.